ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ
  • ืžื“ื•ืจื™ื
  • ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื
  • ืžืืžืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื
ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื” ืžืฉื ื™ืช
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9 ื“ืง' ืงืจื™ืื”
ืœื—ืฅ ืœื”ืงื“ืฉืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื–ื”

ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœื”ืฆืœื—ืช

ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ

ืืช ื”ืชื’ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ ื•ื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ื” ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืื“ื ืื—ื“. ืฉืžื• ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ 1 . ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื• ืžืชื’ืœื•ืช ื’ื ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืชื•ืจืคื” ื”ื—ื‘ื•ื™ื” ื•ื”ืกื›ื ื•ืช ื”ืกืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืœื›ืš ืฉื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ ืื™ื‘ื“ื” ืืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ื” ื›ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื›ืคื™ ืฉืงื•ืจื” ืœื ืคืขื ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื”, ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืื—ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื•ื”ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืคืขืœื• ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืชื• ื•ืœืกืคืง ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ื—ื™.
ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘ื“ื™ืœืฅ ืฉื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื ืขื™ืœื™ืช ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“' ืืœืคื™ื ืชืจื "ื‘ (892). ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืฆืจ ืœืฉื•ืฉืœืช ืืฆื™ืœื” ืฉืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื” ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืขื“ ืฉึตืœื”, ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”, ื•ืฆืืฆื ื™ืฉื™ืจ ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ืกื ื•ื‘ื ื• ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื ื™ื ื, ืฉืžื•ื–ื›ืจื™ื ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื›ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื•ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื 2 .
ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ืขื™ืœื•ื™, ื ืกืข ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืœืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืืฆืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™- ื”ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœืช ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื” ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื”, ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจื• ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžืกื•ืจื”, ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืขืกืงื• ื‘ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ื ื•ืกื—ื• ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงืจื. ื‘ืขืช ืฉืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืฉื”ื” ื‘ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื”, ืขืžื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžืกื•ืจื” ืื”ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืœืจื•ื‘ ืจืง "ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ". ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืขืจื™ื›ืช ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืกื•ืจื” ื”ืกื•ืคื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงืจื: ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื, ื”ื ื™ืงื•ื“ ื•ื˜ืขืžื™ ื”ืžืงืจื. ื”ืื’ื“ื” ืžืกืคืจืช ืฉืืช ื›ืชืจ ืืจื ืฆื•ื‘ื ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื, ืฉืื•ืชื• ืจืื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื›ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžื•ืกืžืš ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงืจื, ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื™ื“ื•. ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืงืจื ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ืฉืžืฉืžืฉ ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืžืชืื™ื ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื• ืœื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืกื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ 3 . ื”ืฉืคืขืชื ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžืกื•ืจื” ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื”ื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื” ืขืœ ื—ืงืจ ื”ืžืงืจื ื•ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื ืžืฉื›ื” ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื”ื. ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืืœื” ืฉื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื• ื‘ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืขืฆืžื” ืžืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื’ื•ืœื” ื”ืจื—ื•ืงื•ืช ื‘ืœืžื“ื ื•ืชื ื”ืงืคื“ื ื™ืช, ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืžื“ื•ืงื“ืง ืฉืขืจื›ื• ื•ื‘ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื•ืช ืฉืจืฉืžื•. ืื•ื•ื™ืจื” ื›ื–ืืช ืฉืœ ืœืžื“ื ื•ืช, ืžืกื™ืจื•ืช ืœืžืกื•ืจืช ื•ืœืงื”ื™ืœื” ื•ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืœื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืขืชื™ื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ืคื” ื”ื–ืืช, ืขืกืง ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืงืจื ื•ื‘ืคืจืฉื ื•ืช ืœืชื•ืจื”. ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ 15, ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืœืš ืฉืžื• ืœืคื ื™ื• ื›ื‘ืงื™ ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื•ื›ืžื“ืงื“ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืฉื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื–ื”, ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืก"ื– (907), ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ ืœืžืฆืจื™ื. ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื›ื‘ืŸ ืขืฉืจื™ื, ื”ื•ื ืคืจืกื ืžื™ืœื•ืŸ ืžืงื™ืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืงืจื ืœื• ื‘ืฉื "ืื’ืจื•ืŸ" (ืื•ืกืฃ ืื• ืื ืชื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”). ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื–ื• ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ื”ืฉืคืขื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช, ื•ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ืฉื™ืžืฉื” ืžื“ืจื™ืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื•, ื“ื•ื ืฉ ื‘ืŸ ืœื‘ืจื˜, ื‘ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื• ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช.
ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืฉื‘ ื•ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ืืจืฅ ื”ื•ืœื“ืชื• ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืข"ื” (915), ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ืžืื™ื’ืจื•ืชื™ื• ืขื•ืœื” ืฉื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื‘ (922) ื”ื•ื ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ืืจื-ืฆื•ื‘ื” (ื—ืœื‘) ืฉื‘ืกื•ืจื™ื”. ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื ืฉื•ื™ ื•ืื‘ ืœื›ืžื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื. ื—ืจืฃ ื’ื“ื•ืœืชื• ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืฆืื• ืœื•, ื˜ืจื ื ืฉื ื‘ืžืฉืจื” ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ื‘ืขืœืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื–ื” ื”ืฉืชื ื” ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื‘.
ื‘ืฉื ื” ื–ื• ื”ืชื’ืœืขื” ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ืฉืื™ื™ืžื” ืœืคืœื’ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื•ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ ืœืงื™ื•ื ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช - ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืžื•ืกื›ื ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื. ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืงื™"ื˜ (359), ื‘ื™ืžื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ืœืœ ื”ืฉื ื™, ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ื”ื ื•ืกื—ื” ื”ืžืกื•ื‘ื›ืช ืฉืœื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ืžืงื•ื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉื‘ืื• ืื—ืจ-ื›ืš. ืฉืืœื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ 29 ืื• 30 ื™ื•ื, ืื• ืื ื”ืฉื ื” ืชื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ื‘ืจืช ืื ืœืื• ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืกืžื›ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื‘ืชื™ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื•ืื•ืœื, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื ื•ืกื—ื” ืœื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ืคื•ืจืกืžื”, ื”ื—ืœื• ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื‘ืœ ืœืขืจื•ืš ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืœืคื™ ื ื•ืกื—ื” ื–ื• ื‘ืขืฆืžื, ืื ื›ื™ ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืขืฅ ื‘ื—ื›ืžื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืคืขืžื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช.
ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื‘ - ื ื™ืกื” ืจื‘ื™ ืื”ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ, ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืœื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื ื•ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืงื‘ื™ืขืช ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื”. ื”ื•ื ืคืกืง ืฉื—ื›ืžื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขื“ื™ืคื™ื ืขืœ ื—ื›ืžื™ ื‘ื‘ืœ ื•ืœื ืœื”ื™ืคืš ื•ืฉืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื•ื›ืจื— ืœื˜ืขื•ืŸ ืœืกืžื›ื•ืช ืฉืžืื– ื•ืžืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื—ื›ืžื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ 4 . ืœืคื™ ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ, ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคืกื— ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื‘ ื—ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ื ื'. ืœืคื™ ื“ืขืชื ืฉืœ ื’ืื•ื ื™ ื‘ื‘ืœ, ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื—ื’ื•ื’ ืืช ื”ืคืกื— ื‘ื™ื•ื ื’' ืฉืื—ืจื™ื•. ื›ืš ื”ื—ืœ ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืกื—ืฃ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ืคื™ืœื’ ืื•ืชื•. ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื—ื’ื’ื• ืืช ื”ืคืกื— ื‘ื™ื•ื ื' ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื”ืฉื ื”, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื—ื’ื•ื’ ืืช ื”ืคืกื— ืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ื ื’'! ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื—ื’ื’ื• ืืช ื”ืคืกื— ื‘ืขืช ืฉื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืื›ืœื• ื—ืžืฅ! ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื. ื‘ืœืขื“ื™ื• ืื™-ืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ืžื•ืขื“ื™ ื”ื—ื’ื™ื ืื• ื”ืชืขื ื™ื•ืช. ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื— ืžืื—ื“ ื‘ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ื‘ืงื™ื•ืžื•. ืžืฉื•ื ื›ืš, ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื‘ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ ื”ืชืขืงืฉ ื•ื“ื‘ืง ื‘ืขืžื“ืชื• ืฉืœื—ื›ืžื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื™ืฉ ืกืžื›ื•ืช ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื•ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืฉื•ื ืคืฉืจื”, ืื™ื™ื ืืกื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืขืœ ืขืฆื ืงื™ื•ืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™.
ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื–ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืฉืคื™ื•ืช ื•ื’ื ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ. ื‘ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืื™ื’ืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ืฉืžืฆื™ื’ื•ืช ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื ืกื“ื•ืจื™ื, ืื™ื’ืจื•ืช ืฉืฉืœื— ืœื—ื›ืžื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ืงืขืงืข ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืืช ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ ื’ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื›ืžื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื’ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ืชืืจื™ืš ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื‘. ื”ื‘ืงื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ืชื•ืจื”, ื”ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืขื ื”ื ื•ืกื—ืื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ืกื‘ื•ืš ืฉืœ ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื•ื”ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ ื”ืžืจืชืง ื•ื”ืžืฉื›ื ืข ืฉืœื• ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืœื• ืืช ื”ื ื™ืฆื—ื•ืŸ. ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื–ื ื—ื” ืืช ื“ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืžื•ืจืžืจ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชื‘ื•ืกื” ืฉื ื—ืœ ืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ืชื• ืœื—ื›ืžื™ ื‘ื‘ืœ ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ื“ื•ืคื™ ื‘ืžื•ืฆืื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” 5 . ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจ-ื›ืš ืฉื•ื‘ ื ื—ื•ื’ ื—ื’ ื”ืคืกื— ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื›ื•ืœื•. ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ื–ื• ื”ืคืจื–ื” ืื ื ืืžืจ ืฉื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื” ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืžื•ืฉื™ืขื ืฉืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ.
ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืขืกืง ื’ื ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืžืื‘ืง ื ื’ื“ ื”ืงืจืื™ื. ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืœื›ื” ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื ื”ื’ืชื• ืฉืœ ืขื ืŸ ื‘ืŸ ื“ื•ื“ (ื“'ืช"ืฅ-ื“'ืชืง"ืž, 730-780). ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืง"ื› (760) ืกื™ืจื‘ื• ื’ืื•ื ื™ ื‘ื‘ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ื• ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ ืจื™ืฉ ื’ืœื•ืชื, ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื”, ื•ื”ืขื“ื™ืคื• ืขืœ ืคื ื™ื• ืืช ืื—ื™ื• ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ, ื›ืขืกื• ื•ืขืœื‘ื•ื ื• ื“ื—ืคื• ืื•ืชื• ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืžืจื™ื‘ื” ืขื“ ืฉื ืืกืจ ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืขืœ ืžืจื“ ื‘ืžืœื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื›ืœื™ืฃ ืฉืœ ื‘ื’ื“ื“ ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืงื›"ื– (767). ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื™ืฃ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืขื ืŸ ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ื’ืจืกื” ืื—ืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช, ื•ื›ืš ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ืฉืชื—ืจืจ ื•ืœื”ื˜ื™ืฃ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืœืืžื•ื ืชื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืขืœื™ื•ื ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืงืจื (ื•ืžื›ืืŸ ื”ืฉื ืงืจืื™ื) ื•ืœืฉืœื™ืœืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ืขืœ-ืคื” ื•ื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ื•ื ืื™ืžืฅ ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคืกื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื ื›ื—ื“ื• ืื–, ื•ื™ืฆืจ "ืชื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ืขืœ-ืคื” ื—ื“ืฉื”", ืฉืขื™ืงืจื™ื” ืžื—ืžื™ืจื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืœื›ืชื™ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื, ื•ืžืงืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื 6 . ืขื ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืœื›ื” ื—ื“ืฉื”, ื•ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉืœื• ืงื ืชื” ืœื” ืืœืคื™ ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื, ืฉื‘ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจื• ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื™ื ื›ืœืคื™ ื›ื•ื—ื ื•ืกืžื›ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื’ืื•ื ื™ ื‘ื‘ืœ. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื™ื (ืืœื” ืฉื”ืชื ื’ื“ื• ืœืงืจืื™ื) ื ืœื—ืžื• ื‘ืชื•ืคืขื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ื•ื—ื, ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœื‘ืœื•ื ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื›ืคื™ืจื”.
ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื—ืฉืฃ ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื•ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืืช ื”ืฉืงืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืช ื•ืฉืœ ืžื™ื™ืกื“ื” ื•ืงืขืงืข ืืช ื”ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื”. ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืฉื‘ืขื” ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืคื•ืœืžื•ืกื™ื™ื ื ื’ื“ ื”ืงืจืื™ื. ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืขืจื‘ื™ืช, ืืš ื”ื ืชื•ืจื’ืžื• ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ื’ื ืœืืจืžื™ืช ื•ืœืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืžืœื‘ื“ ืชืคืงื™ื“ื ื‘ื”ืคืจื›ืช ื˜ืขื ื•ืช ื”ืงืจืื™ื, ืฉื™ืžืฉื• ืื—ืจ-ื›ืš ื›ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืคื•ืœืžื•ืกื™ื ืœื ื•ืฆืจื™ื, ืฉื ื™ืกื• ื’ื ื”ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืขื•ื•ืช ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืืช ืชืคื™ืกื•ืชื™ื” ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื. ืื—ืจื™ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืคื—ืช ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื ื™ื›ืจืช ืžืกืคืจ ื”ืงืจืื™ื ื•ื”ืฉืคืขืชื ื”ืฆื˜ืžืฆืžื” ืžืื•ื“, ื•ืžืื– ืื™ื ื ืžืื™ื™ืžื™ื ืขื•ื“ ืขืœ ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ืขืœ-ืคื” ื›ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ื ื•ืจืžื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช.
ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืงืจืื™ื ื‘ืื” ืื—ืจื™ ืžืื‘ืง ืงืฉื” ืฉืงื ื” ืœื• ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ืขื•ืจืจ ืžื—ืœื•ืงื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžืกืคื•ืจ ื•ืขืœื” ืœื• ื‘ื™ื™ืกื•ืจื™ื™ ื ืคืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื. ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื–ื”, ืื™ืฉ ื“ื’ื•ืœ ื–ื” ืฉืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื•ื•ื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื” ื”ืชื’ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืชื•. ื›ืžื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืจื™ื‘ื” ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช, ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื”ื–ื” ืœื ืจืง ื›ื™ืœื” ืืช ื›ื•ื—ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืืœื ื’ื ื”ื—ืœื™ืฉ ืืช ืกืžื›ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ื•, ื•ื”ืคืขื ืคื’ืข ื‘ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื•ื‘ืžืขืžื“ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ ื›ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™.
ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื”ืžืฆืขืจืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ื™ื” ืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืกื›ืกื•ืš ื”ื—ืจื™ืฃ ื•ื”ืžืžื•ืฉืš ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืขื ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื” ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ 7 . ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™, ื›ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื” ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ, ืฉืžืจ ืžื›ืœ ืžืฉืžืจ ืขืœ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ืชืจ ืฉื”ืงื ื” ืœื• ืชืคืงื™ื“ื•. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื”ืกืชื›ืกืš ืขื ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืžื‘ื“ื™ืชื, ืžืจ ื›ื”ืŸ-ืฆื“ืง, ืฉื ื™ืกื”, ืœืคื™ ื“ืขืชื•, ืœืงื—ืช ืœืขืฆืžื• ืกืžื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื™. ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืค"ื— (928), ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืฉืงืœ ื ื’ื“ ืœืžืจ ื›ื”ืŸ-ืฆื“ืง, ืžื™ื ื” ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ ืœื’ืื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืกื•ืจื ืืช ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”, ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืืžื ื ืื™ืฉ ื‘ื‘ืœ, ืืš ื”ื™ื” ืื“ื ืฉืฉืžื• ื”ื•ืœืš ืœืคื ื™ื•. ื›ืคื™ ืฉืฆืคื” ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™, ื”ืืคื™ืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื—ื™ืฉ ืžื”ืจ ืขืœ ื’ืื•ืŸ ืคื•ืžื‘ื“ื™ืชื, ืืš ื”ืคืชื™ืข ื›ืฉื”ืคืš ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ืœื’ื•ืจื ืฉืžืื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื”ื’ืžื•ื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™. ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืœื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ ื”ื™ื• ืชืงื™ื ื™ื ืืš ืžืชื•ื—ื™ื. ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ ืฉืœื˜ ื‘ื™ื“ ืจืžื” ื•ืœื ืคืขื ื ื™ืฆืœ ืœืจืขื” ืืช ื”ืกืžื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ืงื ื” ืœื• ืชืคืงื™ื“ื• ืœืžืขืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ืชื• ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช.
ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจ"ืฅ (930) ื ื“ืจืฉ ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ืœื•ืช ืœืชืช ืืช ืคืกื™ืงืชื• ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฆื•ื•ืื” ืกื‘ื•ื›ื” ืฉืขื•ืจืจื” ืจื™ื‘ ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืฉืคืกื™ืงืชื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ืœื•ืช ืชื”ื™ื” ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช, ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ืจืš ื’ื ื‘ื—ืชื™ืžืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื”ืžื›ื”ื ื™ื, ืžืจ ื›ื”ืŸ-ืฆื“ืง ื•ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”. ืžืจ ื›ื”ืŸ-ืฆื“ืง, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื ื ื–ืฃ ื•ื”ื•ืขืžื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื• ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื”, ื ืขื ื” ื‘ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœื“ืจื™ืฉืชื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ ื•ื—ืชื ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื™ืงื”. ืœืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืกืคืง ืฉื”ืคืกื™ืงื” ืฉื’ื•ื™ื”, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื›ื•ื–ื‘ืช, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืฆืจืฃ ืืช ื—ืชื™ืžืชื•. ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™ ืขืฆืžื• ืื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื•ื”ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืคื ื™ื• ื‘ืคืจื”ืกื™ื”, ืขื“ ืฉืžืฉืจืชื™ื• ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ื›ื• ืืช ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื” ื•ืกื™ืœืงื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื›ื•ื— ืžื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”. ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื• ื ืจืขืฉื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื”ืืœื”. ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ื—ืจื ืืช ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื”, ื•ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื” ืžืฆื“ื• ื”ื“ื™ื— ืืช ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ. ื”ื›ืœื™ืฃ ื‘ื—ืจ ืœืฆื“ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ื’ื•ืœื”, ื•ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ื•ื“ื— ืžืชืคืงื™ื“ื•. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื–ืืช ื ื•ืฆืจ ืงืจืข ื—ืžื•ืจ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ื‘ื‘ืœ.
ืฉื‘ืข ืฉื ื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ื’ืœื•ืช, ืžืจื‘ื™ืชืŸ ื‘ื‘ื’ื“ื“, ื•ื‘ืขืช ืฉื”ืžืชื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืจื•ื—ื•ืช ื™ื™ืจื’ืขื• ื›ืชื‘ ื›ืžื” ืžืŸ ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืฆ"ื– (937), ื’ื ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœืชืœืื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื•ืช ืฉืคืงื“ื• ืืช ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ ื”ืฉืกื•ืขื”, ื”ืชืคื™ื™ืกื• ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื™ ื”ื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื, ื•ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื—ื–ืจื” ืืช ื›ืก ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืช"ืฉ (940) ืžืช ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™, ื•ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœืžื ื•ืช ืืช ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ื–ื›ืื™, ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”, ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื‘ื™ื•. ืืš ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืžืช ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ื•ื›ื”ื•ื ืชื• ื ืžืฉื›ื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืกืคื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืœืงื— ืืช ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืืœ ื‘ื™ืชื• ื•ื’ื™ื“ืœ ืื•ืชื• ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ ืžืฉืคื—ื”. ืืš ื–ืžืŸ ืœื ืจื‘ ืื—ืจ-ื›ืš ื’ื ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื ื—ืœืฉ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืคื ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืœืš ืœืขื•ืœืžื•. ื“ื•ืกื, ื‘ื ื•, ื”ืชืžื ื” ืœื’ืื•ืŸ, ืื ื›ื™ ืจืง ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืฉืข"ื’ (1013) 8 .
ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื›ืชื‘ ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื•ื›ืชื‘. ืจืง ืคืจื’ืžื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืจื“ื• ืžื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืขื ืคื”. ื”ื•ื ืชืจื’ื ืืช ื”ืชื "ืš ืœืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื•ืฆื™ืจืฃ ืœื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื–ื” ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ, ืฉื”ืคืš ืœืžืคื•ืจืกื ืžืื•ื“ ื•ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื 9 . ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืœื›ืชื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ืกืคืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื“ืงื“ื•ืง ื•ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ืืฃ ืชืคื™ืœื•ืช ื•ืคื™ื•ื˜ื™ื. ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื "ืกืคืจ ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ื“ืขื•ืช", ืฉืื•ืชื• ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืขืจื‘ื™ืช 10 ื‘ืฉื ืช ื“'ืชืจืฆ"ื’ (933). ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืชืจื’ื ืœืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžืืชื™ื™ื ืฉื ื” ืจ' ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืื‘ืŸ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืŸ. ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ ื–ื” ืขื•ืžื“ ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ืื‘ืŸ ืคื™ื ื” ืœืืžื•ื ื” ื•ืœืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื”ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืœืกืคืจ ("ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช") ื›ื•ืชื‘ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื’ืื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืื•ืชื• ืžืคื ื™ ืฉ"ืจืื™ืชื™ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื›ืืœื• ื˜ื‘ืขื• ื‘ื™ื ื”ืกืคืงื•ืช ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืฆื™ืคื• ืื•ืชื ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ืคืงืคื•ืงื™ื". ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืžื•ืกื™ืฃ ื•ืžืกื‘ื™ืจ, "ื•ืชื”ืžื” ื ืคืฉื™ ืœืื•ืžืชื ื• ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืžื” ืฉืจืื™ืชื™ ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ ื–ื”, ืืฉืจ ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ืืžื•ื ืชื ืฆืจื•ืคื” ื•ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื”ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ื›ื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืžืืžื™ื ื™ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื ืžืชืคืืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื‘ืœ...".
ื”ืกืคืจ ืื™ื ื ื• ืืจื™ืกื˜ื•ื˜ืœื™ 11 . ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืžืฆื˜ื˜ ืืช ืืจื™ืกื˜ื• ื•ืžืกื›ื™ื ืขืžื• ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื”, ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ืฉืœื• ื ืฉืขื ืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื‘ื ื” ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื•ื”ืžื˜ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”, ื•ืžืกืชืžื›ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืชืคื™ืกื” ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช. ืžืื—ืจ ืฉืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื›ืชื‘ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืขื•ืจื™ื ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ืช, ื”ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื” ื•ื”ืชืคื™ืกื” ื”ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืขืจื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื•ื‘ืŸ. ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืฉืœื• ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื” ืขืœ ืชืคื™ืกืช ืชื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืืกืœืื ืฉืคืจื—ื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ื•, ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉืขืฉื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื, ื›ืฉื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืืจื™ืกื˜ื•ื˜ืœื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืœื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืชื•. ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืชืคื™ืกื” ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื–ืืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืืช ืงื™ื•ื ื”ืืœ, ื‘ืจื™ืื” ื™ืฉ ืžืื™ืŸ ื•ืชื•ืจื” ืžืŸ ื”ืฉืžื™ื ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืืจ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ืขื ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจ. ื‘ืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆื ื ื’ื“ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช, ื”ื”ื™ื ื“ื•ืื™ื–ื, ื”ืงืจืื•ืช, ื•ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืคื—ื•ืชื”, ื’ื ื ื’ื“ ื”ืืกืœืื. ื”ืกืคืจ ืคื•ืจืฅ ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ืœืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื–ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ืœืคื™ื• ืœืžื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื” ื™ืฉ ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืจืง ืื ืžืงืคื™ื“ื™ื ืœืžืชืŸ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื•ื”ื›ืจืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื•ืชื•ืจื” ื–ื›ื• ืœืงื”ืœ ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืจื—ื‘ ื•ื ืœืžื“ื• ืœื ืจืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืœื ื’ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ ืกืคืจ ืขืจื‘ื™ื 12 . ื—ื›ื ืขืฆื•ื ื–ื” ื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืื—ืจื™ื• ืžื•ืจืฉืช ืฉืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ืฉืžืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื 13 . ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”, ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื”ืžืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื•ืœื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ, ืžื’ืœื ืืช ืชื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”ื‘ ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืœ ื‘ืฉื™ื ืคืจื™ื—ืชื”.


ืคืจืง ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกืคืจHerald of Destiny - Jews in the Medieval Era"" ("ื‘ืฉื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ - ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื"), ArtScroll, 1993. ืžืื ื’ืœื™ืช: ื ืขืžื™ ืžื–ื•ื–. ื”ืคืจืง ืžื•ื‘ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ืื“ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื.




^ 1.. ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื›ืจ ื’ื ื‘ืฉืžื• ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ ืกืขื™ื“ ืืœ ืคื™ื•ืžื™ (ืกืขื™ื“ ืžืคื™ื•ื, ืขื™ืจ ื•ืžื—ื•ื– ื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื ืขื™ืœื™ืช, ืžื“ืจื•ื ืžืขืจื‘ ืœืงื”ื™ืจ).
^ 2.. ืชืขื ื™ืช ื›ื“, ื‘.
^ 3.. ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ื—ื™ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื” ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืขืœ ืžืกื•ืจื” ืฉืฉืžื• ื‘ืŸ ื ืคืชืœื™. ื”ื ื•ืกื— ืฉืœื• ืœืžืงืจื ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื–ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ ื‘-875 ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื›ืฉื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ื›ื•ืœื ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื”ื ื‘ืงืจื™ืื”. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื™ืฉ ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื›ืชื™ื‘ ื•ื‘ื ื™ืงื•ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื•ืกื— ื‘ืŸ ื ืคืชืœื™ ืœื ื•ืกื— ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ. ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืงืจื ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื›ื ืกื• ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ื’ืจืกืื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ื ืคืชืœื™, ืืฃ, ืฉื›ืืžื•ืจ, ื”ื ื•ืกื— ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืืฉืจ ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืกื•ืจื” ื”ืื•ืชื ื˜ื™ ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื.
^ 4.. ื”ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ ื”ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืืฆืœ ื™. ืฉืžืขื•ืŸ ืคื“ืจ, "ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช" (ื‘ื ื™-ื‘ืจืง, ื”'ืชืฉืž"ื”), ื—ืœืง ื‘ ืขืž' 63.
^ 5.. ื“"ืจ ืฉืžืขื•ืŸ ืืคื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, "ืขื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื—ืงืจ" (ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ืจื‘ ืงื•ืง, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”'ืชืฉืœ"ื•), ืข' 69
^ 6.. ื”ื“ืช ื”ืงืจืื™ืช ืื•ืกืจืช, ืœืžืฉืœ, ืœืื›ื•ืœ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื—ื ืื• ืœืฆืืช ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ืช, ืืš ืžืชืขืœืžืช ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืžื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืœืขืจื‘ ืžืื›ืœื™ ื‘ืฉืจ ื•ืžืื›ืœื™ ื—ืœื‘.
^ 7.. ื“'ืชืจืž"ื‘-ื“'ืช"ืฉ (882-940). ืืคื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื‘ืจ ืžืืžืจ ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืคืจืง ื”ืขื’ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช.
^ 8.. ืคื“ืจ ืข' 74. ื›ืžื” ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื›ื™ื”ื ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ื•ืกื. ื“ื•ืกื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ื›ืฉื”ืชืžื ื” ืœื’ืื•ืŸ. ื›ื”ื•ื ืชื• ื ืžืฉื›ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“.
^ 9.. ืจื‘ื ื• ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ืœืชื•ืจื” ืžืจื‘ื” ืœืฆื˜ื˜ ืžืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”.
^ 10.. ื”ืฉื ื‘ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ื•ื "ื›ืชืื‘ ืืœืืžืื ืืช ื•ืืœืืขืชืงืื“ืืช".
^ 11.. ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœ"ืžื•ืจื” ื ื‘ื•ื›ื™ื" ืฉืœ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื.
^ 12.. ืจืื” ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ืจื‘ื ื• ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ืœื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื‘, ื™ื, ืฉืžืžื ื• ืขื•ืœื” ืฉืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื™ื“ืข ืฉื™ืฉ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืฉืžื•ืกืœืžื™ื ื™ืงืจืื• ืืช ื”ืชืจื’ื•ื ืฉืœื• ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื—ืฉ ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืชืจื’ื•ื ื—ื“ ืžืฉืžืขื™ ื’ื ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ื” ื“ื•-ืžืฉืžืขื™, ืฉืžื ื™ืืฉื™ืžื• ื”ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืฉืœื”ื.
^ 13.. ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืฉื’ื“ื•ืœืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืชื–ื›ื” ืœื”ื›ืจื” ืžืœืื” ืจืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ืข ื›ืœืœื™ ื•ื‘ื“ื™ืกืฆื™ืคืœื™ื ื” ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืกื‘ืจ ืฉืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืืจืžื™ืช ื•ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ื™ื• ืฉืคื•ืช-ืื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช, ื™ื“ื™ืขืช ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœืžื™ ืฉืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืงื™ ื‘ื‘ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื ืงืฉื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ืขืœื•ืžื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืืจืžื™ืช ื•ืœืขืจื‘ื™ืช. ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืžืœื ืžืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื• ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืคื•ืจืฉื• ืขืœ ืกืžืš ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืฉืคื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช. ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื”, ื“ื•ื ืฉ ื‘ืŸ ืœื‘ืจื˜, ื‘ื™ืกืก ืืช ื”ื“ืงื“ื•ืง ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ ืฉืœื• ืขืœ ืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืืจืžื™ืช ื•ืœืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช. ื”ืฉืงืคื” ื–ื•, ืฉืื•ืžืจืช ืฉืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืฉืคืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื ื•ื™ื” ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื—ืจื™ืคื” ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื, ืฉื”ืจื‘ื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืžื”ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช. ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื—ื™ื™ื• ื ื—ืกื›ื” ืžืจื‘ื ื• ืกืขื“ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื—ืจื™ืคื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉืงืคื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื•ืช, ืืš ื‘ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืจื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื•ื’ื™ืฉืชื• ื”ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืืœื™ืช ืœืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืœืคืจืฉื ื•ืชื” ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืฉื ืœืžื—ืœื•ืงืช. ืกื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื•ื”ื™ื“ืข ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ื•ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœื”ื ืœืชื•ืจื” ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื–ืืช ื ืžืฉื›ืช ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื›ื–ื• ืื• ืื—ืจืช ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื.

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